Gulocose

Carbohydrates:-

Carbohydrates are the group of nutrients important in the diet as a source of energy they contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are produced in plants by the process of photosynthesis which may be represented by the following equation

                                              (Chlorophyll)

          6CO_{2 +} 6H2O                                   C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂

     Carbon dioxide water from (Sunlight/solar energy) glucose oxygen released from the air the soil in the air other carbohydrate

Classification of carbohydrates:-

                

There are various different carbohydrate but they may be divided into three group according to the size of molecule

1.  Monosaccharide:-

The monosaccharide sugars are commonly found in food contain six carbon atom and have the general formula C₆H₁₂O₆ .the three most important group are

                          

C₆H₁₂O₆+H ₂O       no reaction

(a) Glucose (Dextrose):-

      

The structure of a glucose molecule is shown in fig in the convention representation of the carbon atom in the ring are omitted. Glucose is found in varying amounts in fruits and vegetable. the large amount are found in fruits such as grapes and smaller quantities in vegetable such as young peas and carrots .it is also found in the blood of animal. Glucose syrup or commercial glucose is not pure glucose but a mixture of glucose, other carbohydrates and water Glucose is monosaccharide is an important carbohydrate in biology. The cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellulose respiration. The name comes from Greek language which means sweet carbohydrate. Glucose is commonly available in the form of a white substance or as a solid crystal. It can be commonly found as an aqueous solution.

Structure:-

Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) contains six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group and is therefore referred as an aldohexose.the glucose molecule can exist in an open chain (acyclic0and ring (cyclic) form (in equibilirium), the latter be the result of intermolecular reaction between the aldehyde carbon atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form an inter molecular hemi acetyl in water solution both forma are in equilibrium

Function:-

We can speculate on the reasons why glucose, and not another monosaccharide such as fructose (Fru), is so widely used in evolution, the ecosystem, and metabolism. Glucose can form from formaldehyde under abiotic conditions, so it may well have been available to primitive biochemical systems. Probably more important to advanced life is the low tendency of glucose, by comparison to other hexose sugars, to non-specifically react with the amino groups of proteins. This reaction (glycation) reduces or destroys the function of many enzymes. The low rate of glycation is due to glucose's preference for the less reactive cyclic isomer. Nevertheless, many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., blindness, kidney failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids. In contrast, enzyme-regulated addition of glucose to proteins by glycosylation is often essential to their function.

2.  Disaccharides:-

The sugars have the general formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ .They are formed when two monosaccharide molecule combine with the elimation of water molecule

               

C₆H₁₂O₆+C₆H₁₂O₆                      C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁+H₂O

This is an e.g. of a condensation reaction i.e. a reaction in which two small molecule combine to form one larger molecule with the elimination of a small molecule usually water from between them

Formation of disaccharides

Glucose +fructose       =          sucrose +water

Glucose+ galactose      =          lactose +water

Glucose +glucose        =          maltose+ water

Disaccharides are the simplest polysaccharides .they are composed of two monosaccharide units are bound together by a covalent bond formed via a dehydration reaction ,resulting in the loss of hydrogen atom from one mono

Saccharides and a hydroxyl group from the other, so the formula of general disaccharides is C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁ .

3.  Polysaccharides:-

            Polysaccharides are a condensation polymers of monosaccharide and are made up of a many monosaccharide molecule joined together with the elimination of water molecule at each link they have the general formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)n where  n represent a large molecule.

Starch is the major food reserved of plants it is in fact the mixture of two polysaccharides

Types Of Glucose:-

 

D-Glucose:-

One form of glucose is simply called D-glucose. The "D" refers to the arrangement of alcohol, or OH, groups on the carbon skeleton of the sugar. D-glucose is an open-chain molecule consisting of six carbons arranged into a molecular backbone. There are five OH groups attached to this carbon backbone, forming "arms" or branches off the carbon skeleton. This form of glucose also has an aldehyde group at the top of the carbon skeleton, which consists of an atom of carbon with a double bond to an atom of oxygen, and a single bond to an atom of hydrogen.

Beta-D-Glucopyranose:-

A second form of glucose is called beta-D-glucopyranose. As in straight chain D-glucose, the "D" refers to the arrangement of alcohol groups on the carbon skeleton. Unlike D-glucose, beta-D-glucopyranose has a cyclic carbon skeleton. The ring structure that forms the backbone of the molecule consists of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.

Alpha-D-Glucopyranose:-

The final form of glucose in the body and in nature is alpha-D-glucopyranose. Drs. Mary Campbell and Shawn Farrell, authors of the 2005 text "Biochemistry," explain that the difference between alpha- and beta-D-glucopyranose lies in the orientation of a single alcohol group around the cyclic carbon backbone. This difference, while it seems minor, is actually very significant. Alpha-D-glucopyranose can be found in solution, or combined with other molecules of sugar. Digestible starch is made of many hundreds of linked alpha-D-glucopyranose units, for instance. Humans can split an alpha-linkage, but not an a beta-linkage, which explains why starch is digestible, but dietary fiber is not.

Wool Fibers

Wool production and use dates back approximately 10,000 years in Asia Minor. People living in the Mesopotamian Plain at that time used sheep for three basic human needs: food, clothing and shelter. As spinning and weaving skills developed woolens became a greater part of people's lives. The warmth of wool clothing and the mobility of sheep allowed people to spread civilization beyond the warm climate of the Mesopotamia. Between 3000-1000 BC the Persians, Greeks and Romans distributed sheep and wool throughout Europe. The Romans took sheep everywhere they built their Empire including the British Isles. From here the British took sheep to all their colonies.

Fiber Structure

Wool is different to other fibers because of its chemical structure. This chemical structure influences its texture, elasticity, staple and crimp formation. Wool is a protein fiber, composed of more than 20 amino acids. These amino acids form protein polymers. Wool also contains small amounts of fat, calcium and sodium. The crimps in wool let the fibers bunch together, which results in a bulkier material that also acts as a superior insulator. Fine wool, such as Merino, may have dozens of crimps per inch, while rougher wools may only have a handful. Wool fabric has the unique ability to stretch much further than silk, cotton, or other natural fibers and regains its original shape after being stretched. It has an extremely high absorbency rate and is flame retardant, which makes it useful in firefighters’ uniforms and carpeting in trains and airplanes. Wool also does not build up static cling; the fabric will not cling to the body or produce a spark. Wool is naturally absorbent, and can absorb almost 1/3 of its own weight.

Types of Wool Yarn

There are two types of wool yarn – woollen and worsteds.

Woolens: Woolens is a general term describing various fabrics woven from woollen yarn that is spun from the shorter wool fibers. These shorter fibers are not combed to lie flat as in the worsted yarn. This results in soft surface textures and finishes and the weave of individual yarns does not show as clearly as in worsted fabrics.

Worsteds: Worsted is a general term for fabrics woven from worsted yarns that contain longer fibers spun from combed wool. Worsted wool refers to tightly woven, smooth, clear finished goods in a variety of twill and other stronger weaves.

Processing of wool:

The processing of wool involves four major steps. First comes shearing, followed by sorting and grading, making yarn and lastly, making fabric.

In most parts of the world, sheep are sheared once a year, in early spring or early summer. The best wool comes from the shoulders and sides of the sheep.

This is followed by grading and sorting, where workers remove any stained, damaged or inferior wool from each fleece and sort the rest of the wool according to the quality of the fibers. Wool fibers are judged not only on the basis of their strength but also by their fineness (diameter), length, crimp (waviness) and color.

• Scouring: - The wool is then scoured with detergents to remove the yolkand such like dust, suint (sweat) and wool wax.

• Carding:-The carding process involves passing the wool through rollers that have thin wire teeth. Wool is rolled with a roller that is covered with teeth tease apart the staples of wool, laying the fibers nearly parallel to form a soft rope called a 'sliver'.

• Combing: - Combed to separate short from long fibers, ensuring that the long fibers are laid parallel to produce a combed sliver called a 'top'.

• Drawing: - Drawing out of tops into the thickness of one, to thoroughly blend the wool and ensure evenness or regularity of the resulting 'roving'.

• Finisher drawing: - Drawing to reduce the roving thickness to suit the spinning operation and further improve evenness.

• Spinning: -Inserting twist into the yarn to give strength to the finished yarn.

Worsted vs woollen fabrics

• Worsted fabrics are often more expensive than wool spun products due to the longer raw material to resultant yarn processing route used.
• Worsted fabric is stronger and wears better than a woollen spun fabric of equivalent weave construction and fabric weight.
• Worsted fabrics are preferred for trousers, suitings, other garments and upholstery fabrics where a smooth finish is required.
• Woollen spun fabrics are used for jackets, coats, skirts, upholstery fabrics, rugs and blankets where bulk and textured finishes are desirable.

Wool has many beneficial properties which have led to its long history of use.

• Insulation. Wool insulates against heat and cold. It is comfortable in both hot and cold weather because it absorbs moisture vapor. The crimp in the wool fibers makes them stand apart from each other trapping insulating air between the fibers. Still air is one of the best insulators found in nature. In hot weather the absorption/evaporation process works to help keep the body cooler.
• Fire resistant. Wool does not have to be specially treated to become non-flammable. A fabric made entirely of wool is difficult to ignite, burns slowly, and has limited ability to sustain a flame. Wool does not melt when burned and so cannot stick to the skin and cause serious burns.
• Water repellent. Although wool can absorb moisture, it repels liquids. It is naturally hydrophobic. The scales on the outside of the fiber cause liquid to roll off the surface of the fabric. Even if wool does eventually get wet it generates heat and keeps the body warm, not cold and clammy.
• Elastic. Wool has greater elasticity than any other plant or animal fiber. Wool can be twisted, turned and stretched and will still return to its natural shape.
• Durable. The interlocking protein molecules in the fibers of wool have the power to elongate, stretch and recover, creating an extremely robust fabric that will last. Each wool fiber is made up of millions of 'coiled springs' that stretch and give rather than break.
• Static resistant. Wool has very little tendency to collect static electricity because wool naturally absorbs moisture from the air. Wool garments are much less likely to 'spark' or cling to the body.
• Noise insulation. Wool absorbs noise and reduces noise levels.
• Dirt resistant. Wool's ability to absorb moisture and therefore its low build-up of static electricity means that wool does not attract lint and dust from the air. The crimp in the fiber and the scales on the outside of the fiber deep dirt from penetrating the fabric.
• Versatile. Different sheep breeds with their own unique fiber characteristics provide different wools for a wide range of products.
• Dye-ability. Wool is easy to dye. The scales on the surface of the wool fiber diffuse light giving less reflection and a softer color. The proteins in the core of the fiber absorb and combine with a wide variety of dyes and allow the wool to hold its color.
• Comfort. Wool is comfortable to wear because of its elasticity, and moisture absorbing qualities.
• Fashionable. Wool drapes well, is alive, flexible and tailors easily, making it sought after by fashion designers.

Despite the elastic properties and its fire resistance, wool garments and products are often chemically treated as follows:

• Shrink proofing
• Fire proofing
• Moth proofing.

It is important to look at how the fiber was produced, as some animal treatments can leave chemical residue in the fiber. Post shearing treatments are also a cause for concern. Organically grown fibers can still be treated with toxic chemicals for the 'proofing’ mentioned above, and these chemicals can cause health problems. Because of the scales on the wool fibers wool is often itchy and can cause an allergic reaction in some people.

Australia is the world's largest producer of wool.

Oils and Fats

Oil And Fats:-

Vegetable oil and fats are lipid material drived from plants.Physically oils are liquid at room temperature and fats are solid. Chemically fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, as contrasted with waxes which lack glycerene in their structure. Although many plant yield oil but in commercial practice oil is primarily extracted from seeds.

The melting temperature distinction between oils and fats is imprecise, since definitions of room temperature vary, and typically natural oils have a melting range instead of a single melting point since natural oils are not chemically homogeneous. Although thought of as esters of glycerin and a varying blend of fatty acids, fats and oils also typically contain free fatty acids, monoglycerides and diglycerides, and unsaponifiable lipids.

Vegetable fats and oils may or may not be edible. Examples of inedible vegetable fats and oils include processed linseed oil, tung oil, and castor oil used in lubricants, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and other industrial purposes.

Oil Extraction and/or Expression Methods:-

Oil is extracted from a number of fruits, nuts and seeds (Table 1) for use in cooking and soapmaking1 or as an ingredient in other foods such as baked or fried goods. Oil is a valuable product with universal demand, and the possible income from oil extraction is therefore often enough to justify the relatively high cost of setting up and running a small scale oil milling businessRaw material preparatioOilseeds and nuts should be properly dried before storage, and cleaned to remove sand, dust, leaves and other contaminants. Fruits should be harvested when fully ripe, cleaned and handled carefully to reduce bruising and splitting. All raw materials should be sorted to remove stones etc. and especially mouldy nuts, which can cause poisoning. When storage is necessary, this should be in weatherproof, ventilated rooms which are protected against birds, insects and rodents. Some raw materials (for example groundnuts, sunflower seeds) need dehusking (or decorticating). Small manual machines are available to give higher production rates than manual dehusking.

Dehusking:-

Dehusking is important to give high yields of oil and reduce the bulk of material to be processed` but in groundnut oil extraction about 10% by weight of husk should be added back to the nuts to allow oil to escape more freely from the press. Coconut is dehusked and split by skilled operators as this is faster than the available small-scale machines. Most nuts need grinding before oil extraction to increase the yield of oil. Small mills are available for grinding copra, palm kernels and groundnuts. Some seeds (e.g. groundnuts) are conditioned by heating to 80-90oC using a seed scorcher (    2) and all oil-bearing materials need to have the correct moisture content to maximize the oil yield. Other oilseeds and nuts are usually processed cold provided that their moisture content is below about 7%.

Methods of extraction:-

There are basically three methods of removing oil from the raw materials: solvent extraction, wet processing or dry processing. Solvent extraction is not suitable for small-scale processing because of high capital and operating costs, the risk of fire and explosions from solvents and the complexity of the process. Equipment for wet or dry processing is available at different scales of operation from household to industrial scale. Traditional methods of extraction are described below, followed by higher output manual machines and mechanized extraction.

Traditional methods:-

Oil is extracted from fresh coconut, olives, palm fruit shea nut etc. by separating the flesh and boiling it in water. Salt is added to break the emulsion and the oil is skimmed from the surface. In palm oil processing the fruit is first heated in a ‘digester’.

Manual method:-

Oil can be extracted by pressing softer oilseeds and nuts, such as groundnuts and shea nuts, whereas harder, more fibrous materials such as copra and sunflower seed are processed using ghazis. Pulped or ground material is loaded into a manual or hydraulic press to squeeze out the oil water emulsion. This is more efficient at removing oil than traditional hand squeezing, allowing higher production rates. Fresh coconut meat is removed from the shell using a manual reamer (    3) or a motorized reamer. The fine particles are pressed in a similar way to extract the oil emulsion. The emulsion is broken and the oil is then separated and clarified (see below).Presses have a number of different designs, which can be grouped into screw or hydraulic operation. Both types can be manual or motor driven. In all types, a batch of raw material is placed in a heavy duty perforated metal ‘cage’ and pressed by the movement of a heavy Meta plunger. The amount of material in the cage varies from 5-30 kg with an average of 20 kg. Layer plates can be used in larger cages to reduce the thickness of the layer of raw material and a Manual Reamer speed up removal of oil. The pressure should be increased slowly to allow time for the oil to escape. Screw types are more reliable than hydraulic types but are slower and produce less pressure. Except where a lorry jack is used, hydraulic types are more expensive, need more maintenance, and risk contaminating oil with poisonous hydraulic fluid. Ghanis are widely used in Asia but less so in other areas. A heavy wooden or metal pestle is driven inside a large metal or wooden mortar. The batch of raw material is ground and pressed and the oil drains out. They have relatively high capital and maintenance costs and need skilled operators to achieve high oil yields.

Mechanized extraction

Motorized presses are faster than manual or animal types (    5a) but are more expensive.Motorized ghanis are also available, but their higher capital and operating costs require a larger scale of production for profitability.

Expellers are continuous in operation and work by grinding and pressing the raw material as it is carried through a barrel by a helical screw. The pressure inside the barrel, and hence the yield of oil, are adjusted using a ‘choke’ ring at the outlet. The equipment has higher production rates than similar sized presses but is more expensive to buy and operate.Although manual expellers are available small scale oil millers more often use Powered equipment to reduce the time and labour involved in processing. Some designs also have an electric heater fitted to the barrel to increase the rate of oil extraction. The production rate using presses and ghazis depends on the size of the equipment and the time taken to fill, press and empty each batch. The production rate of expellers depends on the size of the equipment, the speed of the screw and the setting of the choke ring.

Clarification of oil:-

Crude (freshly extracted) oil contains moisture, and fiber, resins, colors etc. from the plant material, which make it darker and more opaque. These materials are removed by clarification – either by letting the oil stands undisturbed for a few days and then separating the upper layer, or by using a clarifier. This consists of an oil drum placed above a fire. The oil is boiled to drive off water and destroy naturally occurring enzymes and contaminating bacteria. The oil is allowed to stand and contaminants the separate out. The oil is filtered through a cloth and heated briefly to 100°C to boil off any remaining traces of moisture. This is usually sufficient to meet the quality needs of customers and give a shelf life of several months when correctly packaged. However, the oil requires additional refining stages of de-gumming, neutralizing and de-coloring to have a similar quality to commercially refined oils, and these stages are difficult to complete at a small scale.

Packaging and storage of oil:-

If incorrectly stored, some types of oil rapidly go rancid and develop an unpleasant odour andflavour. The main factors that cause rancidity (in addition to moisture, bacteria and enzymes above) are light, heat, air and some types of metals. To obtain a shelf life of several months, oils should be stored in lightproof, airtight and moisture-proof containers in a cool place. Tin coated cans, glazed pottery, colored glass and certain types of plastics are each suitable when properly sealed. Great care is needed to remove all traces of oil from re-useable containers, and to thoroughly dry them before re-filling, because any residual moisture or rancid oil on the inside will rapidly spoil fresh oil. The materials used to make processing equipment and containers should not contain copper as it promotes rancidity. Stainless steel, galvanized iron, enameled iron or aluminum is suitable.

Use of by-products:-

Coconut by-products have a wide variety of uses. Groundnut meal is widely used for human food (biscuits, soups etc.) when it is extracted by manual methods which do not burn the by-product. Other fruits, nuts and oilseeds produce by-products that can be used for fuel and animal feeds (Table 1). The high temperatures employed in expellers burn by-products and they are only suitable for animal feeds. However, all oil extraction businesses need to identify markets for their by-products for economic viabThe main quality checks concern raw materials, processing conditions, product quality and packaging and storage conditions. Raw materials should be checked to ensure that there is no mould growth, and that they are correctly dried, cleaned and sorted. During processing, the temperature and time of conditioning, the moisture content of the raw material, and the yield of oil should be routinely checked. Quality checks on the product include correct colour, flavour, odour, clarity and fill weight.

Oil processing as a business:-

The profitability of oil processing depends on reducing the capital and operating costs as much as possible, and at the same time maximizing the income from the sale of oil and by-products. A careful study of all costs should be undertaken before setting up a production unit. In particular the cost of the main pieces of equipment, salaries for the expected number of workers, and the prices for raw materials, fuel and power should be assessed. The price that can be charged for oil and by-products depends on a number of factors including quality, packaging, and the number, type and quality of competing products. These should each be assessed in order to calculate the likely income at the planned scale of production over the year. The production costs can then be compared with the expected income to calculate the likely profitability. In most cases it is necessary to make full use of the byproducts to make the enterprise financially successful.

Different systems are used for marketing and selling oils and by-products, and it is necessary to select one that meets the needs of consumers, while at the same time keeping the costs of selling as low as possible. For example, contract (or custom) oil extraction, in which farmers or households bring their crop to the oil mill for processing, has the lowest selling costs. Alternatively, oil can be sold from bulk drums into customers’ containers in markets or at the production site or it can be packaged into retail or bulk containers and transported to towns for sale. By-products are usually sold in bulk to poultry or animal producers, or to other food or animal feed processors. It may be advantageous to locate the oil mill in an area where byproducts are needed in order to reduce transport costs.